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Replace the type of the current partition. u Modify the display/entry units, which must be cylinders or sectors. v Verify: check for errors; display a summary of the number of unallocated sectors. w Save changes; exit. fetchmail fetchmail [options] [servers…] System administration command. Retrieve mail from mail servers and forward it to the local mail delivery system. fetchmail retrieves mail from servers that support the common mail protocols POP2, POP3, IMAP2bis, and IMAP4. Messages are delivered via SMTP through port 25 on the local host and through your system’s mail delivery agent (such as sendmail), where they can be read through the user’s mail client. fetchmail settings are stored in the ~/.fetchmailrc file. Parameters and servers can also be set on the command line, which will override settings in the .fetchmailrc file. fetchmail is compatible with the popclient program, and users can use both without having to adjust file settings. Options -a, –all Retrieve all messages from server, even ones that have already been seen but left on the server. The default is to only retrieve new messages. -A type, –auth type Specify the type of authentication. type may be: password, kerberos_v5, or kerberos. Authentication type is usually established by fetchmail by default, so this option isn’t very useful. -B n, –fetchlimit n Set the maximum number of messages (n) accepted from a server per query. -b n, –batchlimit n Set the maximum number of messages sent to an SMTP listener per connection. When this limit is reached, the connection will be broken and reestablished. The default of 0 means no limit. -c, –check Check for mail on a single server without retrieving or deleting messages. Works with IMAP but not well with other protocols, if at all. -D [domain], –smtpaddress [domain] Specify the domain name placed in RCPT TO lines sent to SMTP. The default is the local host. -E header, –envelope header Change the header assumed to contain the mail’s envelope address (usually “X-Envelope-to:”) to header. -e n, –expunge n
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fdformat fdformat [options] device Low-level format of a floppy disk. The device for a standard format is usually /dev/fd0 or /dev/fd1. Option -n Do not verify format after completion. fdisk fdisk [options] [device] System administration command. Maintain disk partitions via a menu. fdisk displays information about disk partitions, creates and deletes disk partitions, and changes the active partition. It is possible to assign a different operating system to each of the four partitions, though only one partition is active at any given time. You can also divide a physical partition into several logical partitions. The minimum recommended size for a Linux system partition is 40MB. Normally, device will be /dev/hda, /dev/hdb, /dev/sda, /dev/sdb, /dev/hdc, /dev/hdd, and so on. See also cfdisk. Options -l List partition tables and exit. -spartition Display the size of partition, unless it is a DOS partition. Commands a Toggle a bootable flag on current partition. d Delete current partition. l List all partition types. m Main menu. n Create a new partition; prompt for more information. p Print a list of all partitions and information about each. q Quit; do not save. t
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expr ( 5 + 10 ) / 2 Add 1 to variable i. This is how variables are incremented in shell scripts: i=`expr $i + 1 Print 1 (true) if variable a is the string “hello”: expr $a = hello Print 1 (true) if b plus 5 equals 10 or more: expr $b + 5 >= 10 Find the 5th, 6th, and 7th letters of the word character: expr substr character 5 3 In the examples that follow, variable p is the string “version.100″. This command prints the number of characters in p: expr $p : ‘.*’ Result is 11 Match all characters and print them: expr $p : ‘(.*)’ Result is “version.100″ Print the number of lowercase letters at the beginning of p: expr $p : ‘[a-z]*’ Result is 7 Match the lowercase letters at the beginning of p: expr $p : ‘([a-z]*)’ Result is “version” Truncate $x if it contains five or more characters; if not, just print $x. (Logical OR uses the second argument when the first one is 0 or null; i.e., when the match fails.) expr $x : ‘(…..)’ | $x In a shell script, rename files to their first five letters: mv $x `expr $x : ‘(…..)’ | $x (To avoid overwriting files with similar names, use mv -i.) false false A null command that returns an unsuccessful (nonzero) exit status. Normally used in bash scripts. See also true.
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< Is arg1 less than arg2? <= Is arg1 less than or equal to arg2? Logical operators Use these to compare two arguments. Depending on the values, the result can be arg1 (or some portion of it), arg2, or 0. Symbols | and & must be escaped. | Logical OR; if arg1 has a nonzero (and nonnull) value, the result is arg1; otherwise, the result is arg2. & Logical AND; if both arg1 and arg2 have a nonzero (and nonnull) value, the result is arg1; otherwise, the result is 0. : Like grep; arg2 is a pattern to search for in arg1. arg2 must be a regular expression. If part of the arg2 pattern is enclosed in ( ), the result is the portion of arg1 that matches; otherwise, the result is simply the number of characters that match. By default, a pattern match always applies to the beginning of the first argument (the search string implicitly begins with a ^). Start the search string with .* to match other parts of the string. Keywords index string character-list Return the first position in string that matches the first possible character in character-list. Continue through character-list until a match is found, or return 0. length string Return the length of string. match string regex Same as string : regex. quote token Treat token as a string, even if it would normally be a keyword or an operator. substr string start length Return a section of string, beginning with start, with a maximum length of length characters. Return null when given a negative or nonnumeric start or length. Examples Division happens first; result is 10: expr 5 + 10 / 2 Addition happens first; result is 7 (truncated from 7.5):
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–version Print version information and then exit. expr expr arg1 operator arg2 [ operator arg3 … ] Evaluate arguments as expressions and print the result. Arguments and operators must be separated by spaces. In most cases, an argument is an integer, typed literally or represented by a shell variable. There are three types of operators: arithmetic, relational, and logical, as well as keyword expressions. Exit status for expr is 0 (expression is nonzero and nonnull), 1 (expression is 0 or null), or 2 (expression is invalid). Arithmetic operators Use these to produce mathematical expressions whose results are printed: + Add arg2 to arg1. - Subtract arg2 from arg1. * Multiply the arguments. / Divide arg1 by arg2. % Take the remainder when arg1 is divided by arg2. Addition and subtraction are evaluated last, unless they are grouped inside parentheses. The symbols *, (, and ) have meaning to the shell, so they must be escaped (preceded by a backslash or enclosed in single quotes). Relational operators Use these to compare two arguments. Arguments can also be words, in which case comparisons are defined by the locale. If the comparison statement is true, the result is 1; if false, the result is 0. Symbols > and < must be escaped. =, == Are the arguments equal? != Are the arguments different? > Is arg1 greater than arg2? >= Is arg1 greater than or equal to arg2?
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Consider the files that follow this option to be written in language. Use the -h option for a list of languages and their default filename extensions. -o file, –output=file Write to file. -r regexp, –regex=regexp Include a tag for each line that matches regexp in the files following this option. -C, –c++ Expect .c and .h files to contain C++, not C, code. -D, –no-defines Do not include tag entries for C preprocessor definitions. -H, -h, –help Print usage information. -R, –noregex Don’t include tags based on regular-expression matching for the files that follow this option. -S, –ignore-indentation Normally etags uses indentation to parse the tag file; this option tells it to rely on it less. -V, –version Print the version number. ex ex [options] file An interactive command-based editor. For more information, see Chapter 11, “The vi Editor”. expand expand [options] files Convert tabs in given files (or standard input, if the file is named -) to appropriate number of spaces; write results to standard output. Options -tabs, -t, –tabs tabs tabs is a comma-separated list of integers that specify the placement of tab stops. If exactly one integer is provided, the tab stops are set to every integer spaces. By default, tab stops are 8 spaces apart. With -t and –tabs, the list may be separated by whitespace instead of commas. -i, –initial Convert tabs only at the beginning of lines. –help Print help message and then exit.
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env env [option] [variable=value … ] [command] Display the current environment or, if an environment variable is specified, set it to a new value and display the modified environment. If command is specified, execute it under the modified environment. Options -, -i, –ignore-environment Ignore current environment entirely. -u name, –unset name Unset the specified variable. –help Print help message and then exit. –version Print version information and then exit. etags etags [options] files Create a list of function and macro names that are defined in the specified C, Pascal, FORTRAN, yacc, or flex source files. The output list (named tags by default) contains lines of the form: name file context where name is the function or macro name, file is the source file in which name is defined, and context is a search pattern that shows the line of code containing name. After the list of tags is created, you can invoke Emacs on any file and type: ESC-x visit-tags-table You will be prompted for the name of the tag table; the default is TAGS. To switch to the source file associated with the name listed in tagsfile, type: ESC-x find-tag You will be prompted for the tag you would like Emacs to search for. ctags produces an equivalent tags file for use with vi. Options -a, –append Append tag output to existing list of tags. -d, –defines Include tag entries for C preprocessor definitions. -i file, –include=file Add a note to the tags file that file should be consulted in addition to the normal input file. -l language, –language=language
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to make the sequences work.) -E Disable character sequences with special meaning. -n Suppress printing of newline after text. –help Print help message and then exit. –version Print version information and then exit. Examples /bin/echo “testing printer” | lp/bin/echo “TITLEnTITLE” > file ; cat doc1 doc2 >> file/bin/echo “Warning: ringing bell a” egrep egrep [options] [regexp] [files] Search one or more files for lines that match an extended regular expression regexp. egrep doesn’t support the regular expressions (, ), n, <, >, {, or } but does support the other expressions, as well as the extended set +, ?, |, and ( ). Remember to enclose these characters in quotes. Regular expressions are described in Chapter 9, “Pattern Matching”. Exit status is 0 if any lines match, 1 if none match, and 2 for errors. See grep for the list of available options. Also see fgrep. egrep typically runs faster than those commands. Examples Search for occurrences of Victor or Victoria in file: egrep ‘Victor(ia)*’ fileegrep ‘(Victor|Victoria)’ file Find and print strings such as old.doc1 or new.doc2 in files, and include their line numbers: egrep -n ‘(old|new).doc?’ files emacs emacs [options] [files] A text editor and all-purpose work environment. For more information, see Chapter 10, “The Emacs Editor”.
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Expect to find the superblock at size; if it’s not there, exit. -F Flush buffer caches before checking. -L file Consult file for list of bad blocks instead of checking filesystem for them. echo echo [-n] [string] This is the /bin/echo command. echo also exists as a command built into the C shell and bash. The following character sequences have special meanings: a Alert (bell) b Backspace c Suppress trailing newline f Form feed n Newline r Carriage return t Horizontal tab v Vertical tab \ Literal backslash nnn The octal character whose ASCII code is nnn. Options -e Enable character sequences with special meaning. (In some versions, this option is not required in order
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1 Same as –full-table 2 Same as –separate-lines 3 One line for each keycode up to the first hole, then one line per modifier/keycode pair e2fsck e2fsck [options] device fsck.ext2 [options] device System administration command. Similar to fsck, but specifically intended for Linux Second Extended Filesystems. When checking a second extended filesystem, fsck calls this command. Options -b superblock Use superblock instead of default superblock. -d Debugging mode. -f Force checking, even if kernel has already marked the filesystem as valid. e2fsck will normally exit without checking if the system appears to be clean. -l file Consult file for a list of bad blocks, in addition to checking for others. -n Ensure that no changes are made to the filesystem. When queried, answer “no.” -p “Preen.” Repair all bad blocks noninteractively. -t Display timing statistics. -v Verbose. -y When queried, answer “yes.” -B size
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